Public Locomotion

The Research
That Guides Us

Many aspects of foot shape, gait, and movement are still
actively studied. The research below has influenced how
we think about footwear and the role it plays
in human movement.

Public Locomotion

Last Updated: August 11, 2026

Our takeaway

Raised heels can shift how your body balances over your feet. Research suggests that flatter, lower-profile shoes may help people feel more stable by keeping the foot closer to the ground and improving sensory feedback.

Research:

Cudejko, T., Gardiner, J., Akpan, A., & D'Août, K. (2020). Minimal footwear improves stability and physical function in middle-aged and older people compared to conventional shoes. Clinical Biomechanics, 71, 139–145.

Our takeaway

Feet are naturally widest at the toes, but narrow shoes can squeeze that shape over time. A wider toe box gives the toes room to spread, creating a more stable base and helping pressure move more evenly through the foot.

Research:

Chadchavalpanichaya, N., Prakotmongkol, V., Polhan, N., Rayothee, P., & Seng-Iad, S. (2018). Effectiveness of the custom-mold room temperature vulcanizing silicone toe separator on hallux valgus: A prospective, randomized single-blinded controlled trial. Prosthetics and Orthotics International, 42(2), 163–170. doi:10.1177/0309364617698518.
Shine, I. B. (1965). Incidence of hallux valgus in a partially shoe-wearing community. British Medical Journal, 1(5451), 1648–1650. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.5451.1648.
Hollander, K., de Villiers, J. E., Sehner, S., Wegscheider, K., Braumann, K.-M., Venter, R., & Zech, A. (2017). Growing-up (habitually) barefoot influences the development of foot and arch morphology in children and adolescents. Scientific Reports, 7, 8079. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-07868-4.
Holowka, N. B., Wallace, I. J., & Lieberman, D. E. (2018). Foot strength and stiffness are related to footwear use in a comparison of minimally- vs. conventionally-shod populations. Scientific Reports, 8, 3679. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-21916-7.
Cudejko, T., Gardiner, J., Akpan, A., & D’Août, K. (2020). Minimal footwear improves stability and physical function in middle-aged and older people compared to conventional shoes. Clinical Biomechanics, 71, 139–145. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2019.11.005.
Stolwijk, N. M., Duysens, J., Louwerens, J. W. K., van de Ven, Y. H. M., & Keijsers, N. L. W. (2013). Flat feet, happy feet? Comparison of the dynamic plantar pressure distribution and static medial foot geometry between Malawian and Dutch adults. PLOS ONE, 8(2), e57209. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057209.

Our takeaway

When shoes are too stiff or overly supportive, the foot may not have to work as much. More flexible footwear allows the foot to move, bend, and strengthen through everyday use.

Research:

Hollander, K., de Villiers, J. E., Sehner, S., Wegscheider, K., Braumann, K.-M., Venter, R., & Zech, A. (2017). Growing-up (habitually) barefoot influences the development of foot and arch morphology in children and adolescents. Scientific Reports, 7, 8079. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-07868-4.
Holowka, N. B., Wallace, I. J., & Lieberman, D. E. (2018). Foot strength and stiffness are related to footwear use in a comparison of minimally- vs. conventionally-shod populations. Scientific Reports, 8, 3679. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-21916-7.
Ridge, S. T., Olsen, M. T., Bruening, D. A., Jurgensmeier, K., Griffin, D., Davis, I. S., & Johnson, A. W. (2019). Walking in minimalist shoes is effective for strengthening foot muscles. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 51(1), 104–113. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000001751.
Zech, A., Venter, R., de Villiers, J. E., Sehner, S., Wegscheider, K., & Hollander, K. (2018). Motor skills of children and adolescents are influenced by growing up barefoot or shod. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 6, 115. doi:10.3389/fped.2018.00115.

Our takeaway

Toe spacers can help restore space between the toes and support more natural toe alignment over time. They may help improve balance, comfort, and how the foot engages with the ground.

Research:

Abdalbary, S. A. (2018). Foot mobilization and exercise program combined with toe separator improves outcomes in women with moderate hallux valgus at 1-year follow-up: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association, 108(6), 478–486. doi:10.7547/17-026.
Chadchavalpanichaya, N., Prakotmongkol, V., Polhan, N., Rayothee, P., & Seng-Iad, S. (2018). Effectiveness of the custom-mold room temperature vulcanizing silicone toe separator on hallux valgus: A prospective, randomized single-blinded controlled trial. Prosthetics and Orthotics International, 42(2), 163–170. doi:10.1177/0309364617698518.
Kelly A, Stanek J. “The Impact of a Foot-Toe Orthosis on Dynamic Balance: An Exploratory Randomized Control Trial.” Journal of Sport Rehabilitation. 2020;29(7):871–878.